Phenotypically distinct cellular (sub)populations are clinically relevant for virulence and antibiotic resistance of a bacterial pathogen, but functionally different cells are usually indistinguishable from each other. Here, we introduce fluorescent activity-based probes as chemical tools for single-cell phenotypic characterization of enzyme activity levels in Staphylococcus aureus. We screened a 1,2,3-triazole urea library to identify selective inhibitors of fluorophosphonate-binding serine hydrolases and lipases in S. aureus and synthesized target-selective activity-based probes. Molecular imaging and activity-based protein profiling studies with these probes revealed a dynamic network within this enzyme family involving compensatory regulation of specific family members and exposed single-cell phenotypic heterogeneity. We propose chemical probe labeling of enzymatic activities as a generalizable method for phenotyping of bacterial cells at the population and single-cell level.